Conflict theory
Those who believe in conflict theories claim that the social consensus isn't as consensual as functionalism states. All conflict theories are built upon the notion that this social consensus is 'the value system of a dominant social group' (O'Byrne, 2011, p47). This is portrayed in all aspect of society, including the education system that 'performs certain social functions but not necessarily to the benefit of all' (Bartlett & Burton, 2007). Marxism argues that society is set to the benefit of the bourgeoisie who exploit the proletariat, whereas feminism expresses the view that society is dominated by men. Both perspectives would claim that the vast difference in subject choice between males and females is due to a sense of control by a dominant social group.
Feminism
The feminist perspective holds the belief that all members of a society should be equal despite sex, which isn't seen in society today. There is a perceived 'dominance of men over women reproduced through social institutions such as family, and education' (O'Byrne, 2011, p91). These dominant male groups impose unfair social rules upon society that dictate perceptions of male and female, and masculine and feminine. These ideas are adopted by both the ruling and non-ruling groups and impact how society runs, (Lindsey, 2010). These ideas can be portrayed both formally and informally in a range of societal institutions. Until recent years it was widely believed that women should stay at home and take on home/child caring jobs whilst men participated in manual labour to earn money. This was reflected in the jobs available, the number of women in workforce and the subjects offered for each sex. There has always been a 'social consensus' that females must remain 'feminine' and therefore participate in 'feminine' work. Before the 1988 education reform act, and the introduction of a unified curriculum for all, males and females were offered and pressured into different routes of education; males into academic and manual labour subjects, whilst women into domestic subjects (Bartlett and Burton, 2007). These previously engrained subject choices and gender stereotypes have led to a widespread acceptance of these ideas, which although slowly changing, 'the subject areas in which qualifications are gained still reflect gender stereotypes', (Arnot and Phipps, n.d). The domination of women in 'education' subjects is due to the doctrine ideas that these are 'feminine' whilst 'engineering and technology' subjects are 'masculine'. A study on women in the field of engineering claimed that generally female engineers 'socialization provided them with a relatively gender neutral foundation', (Cech, 2005), implying that they feel less of a need to live up the expectations of being explicitly 'feminine'. Despite legislation such as the education reform act (1988) and the human rights act (1988), these stereotypes are still being taught in the classroom through the hidden curriculum and teachers perceptions. Many teachers actively express the view that certain genders aren't competent in certain subjects; "Maybe girls just don't like physics" and "boys can't do English", (
Donald, 2013). The 'Closing Doors' report (Institute of Physics, 2013) shows further evidence that schools and colleges express these ideas to pupils, dictating their subject choices in higher education and further.
Marxism
Whilst feminism believes society is dominated by males, Marxism argues that it is capitalism that rules society, 'and thus conflict exists between two classes, the owners [bourgeoisie] and the workers [proletariat]). Although built heavily on the work of Karl Marx, who ironically it is claimed once said "All I know is that I am not a Marxist"; the theory has evolved and branched massively since its introduction in the 1800's. Although Marxism has never attempted to explain the gender inequality in education or society, it does claim that all inequalities will be solved once capitalism has been beat. Many Marxists explain that the education is set up to indoctrinate children into the capitalist society (Illich, 1973) (Bowles and Gintis, 1976). They go on to describe the 'hidden curriculum' as a method of teaching 'an acceptance of hierarchy', 'a legitimation of inequality' and 'an attribution of poverty to failure to conform and achieve' (Pearson, 2005). Similar to feminism, Marxism holds the belief that the education system reproduces inequality through the hidden curriculum. Louis Althusser wrote a lot on education, arguing that the main function of education in a capitalist society is to reproduce an effective and obedient workforce (1971). In doing this the bourgeoisie, or ruling class, dictate what the most effective workforce would be, and so separate the higher and lower classes. A feminist Marxist would continue this to a division between males and females, explaining the gender gap in higher education subject choices. The ruling class impose the idea that first of all only those in a higher class are suitable to study at university level, and furthermore women are better suited to specific subjects, such as 'education' whilst men are better suited to others, such as 'engineering'. It is argued that capitalism limits knowledge available to specific identity groups, in this case through subject choice. Whilst it should be noted that Marxists would claim students are not forced into these subjects choices, they are due to the common ideology that these are the subjects they should choose (Lindsey, 2010).
Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interaction is a micro perspective that focuses on interpretation of individuals and their actions. George Mead introduced the concept of 'I' and 'Me'; 'I' being the self inside, and 'Me' being the self that engages in interactions (O'Byrne, 2011). Through the symbols that we use in society, speech, body language, signs etc., we portray a character of who we want to be. For many people this is as simple as male or female, 'gender emerges not as an individual attribute but something that is accomplished in interaction with others' (Lindsey, 2010). Another symbolic interactionism theory is the self fulfilling prophecy, or labelling theory. The way somebody perceives and interprets an individual can lead to labels being placed on said individual, and very often becoming true for no other reason than the individual believes it to be, 'the 'reality' is actually a construct of a self-perpetuating process of labelling' (O'Byrne, 2011). Hargreaves (1967) found that children labelled 'troublemakers' developed their own delinquent subculture, going against the values of the school. It can be argued then that the huge difference in subject choices between genders at higher education is because as individuals we perform actions that will lead us to be perceived as 'male' or 'female', and therefore choose subjects that have been labelled one or the other.
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Feminism
The feminist perspective holds the belief that all members of a society should be equal despite sex, which isn't seen in society today. There is a perceived 'dominance of men over women reproduced through social institutions such as family, and education' (O'Byrne, 2011, p91). These dominant male groups impose unfair social rules upon society that dictate perceptions of male and female, and masculine and feminine. These ideas are adopted by both the ruling and non-ruling groups and impact how society runs, (Lindsey, 2010). These ideas can be portrayed both formally and informally in a range of societal institutions. Until recent years it was widely believed that women should stay at home and take on home/child caring jobs whilst men participated in manual labour to earn money. This was reflected in the jobs available, the number of women in workforce and the subjects offered for each sex. There has always been a 'social consensus' that females must remain 'feminine' and therefore participate in 'feminine' work. Before the 1988 education reform act, and the introduction of a unified curriculum for all, males and females were offered and pressured into different routes of education; males into academic and manual labour subjects, whilst women into domestic subjects (Bartlett and Burton, 2007). These previously engrained subject choices and gender stereotypes have led to a widespread acceptance of these ideas, which although slowly changing, 'the subject areas in which qualifications are gained still reflect gender stereotypes', (Arnot and Phipps, n.d). The domination of women in 'education' subjects is due to the doctrine ideas that these are 'feminine' whilst 'engineering and technology' subjects are 'masculine'. A study on women in the field of engineering claimed that generally female engineers 'socialization provided them with a relatively gender neutral foundation', (Cech, 2005), implying that they feel less of a need to live up the expectations of being explicitly 'feminine'. Despite legislation such as the education reform act (1988) and the human rights act (1988), these stereotypes are still being taught in the classroom through the hidden curriculum and teachers perceptions. Many teachers actively express the view that certain genders aren't competent in certain subjects; "Maybe girls just don't like physics" and "boys can't do English", (
Donald, 2013). The 'Closing Doors' report (Institute of Physics, 2013) shows further evidence that schools and colleges express these ideas to pupils, dictating their subject choices in higher education and further.
Marxism
Whilst feminism believes society is dominated by males, Marxism argues that it is capitalism that rules society, 'and thus conflict exists between two classes, the owners [bourgeoisie] and the workers [proletariat]). Although built heavily on the work of Karl Marx, who ironically it is claimed once said "All I know is that I am not a Marxist"; the theory has evolved and branched massively since its introduction in the 1800's. Although Marxism has never attempted to explain the gender inequality in education or society, it does claim that all inequalities will be solved once capitalism has been beat. Many Marxists explain that the education is set up to indoctrinate children into the capitalist society (Illich, 1973) (Bowles and Gintis, 1976). They go on to describe the 'hidden curriculum' as a method of teaching 'an acceptance of hierarchy', 'a legitimation of inequality' and 'an attribution of poverty to failure to conform and achieve' (Pearson, 2005). Similar to feminism, Marxism holds the belief that the education system reproduces inequality through the hidden curriculum. Louis Althusser wrote a lot on education, arguing that the main function of education in a capitalist society is to reproduce an effective and obedient workforce (1971). In doing this the bourgeoisie, or ruling class, dictate what the most effective workforce would be, and so separate the higher and lower classes. A feminist Marxist would continue this to a division between males and females, explaining the gender gap in higher education subject choices. The ruling class impose the idea that first of all only those in a higher class are suitable to study at university level, and furthermore women are better suited to specific subjects, such as 'education' whilst men are better suited to others, such as 'engineering'. It is argued that capitalism limits knowledge available to specific identity groups, in this case through subject choice. Whilst it should be noted that Marxists would claim students are not forced into these subjects choices, they are due to the common ideology that these are the subjects they should choose (Lindsey, 2010).
Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interaction is a micro perspective that focuses on interpretation of individuals and their actions. George Mead introduced the concept of 'I' and 'Me'; 'I' being the self inside, and 'Me' being the self that engages in interactions (O'Byrne, 2011). Through the symbols that we use in society, speech, body language, signs etc., we portray a character of who we want to be. For many people this is as simple as male or female, 'gender emerges not as an individual attribute but something that is accomplished in interaction with others' (Lindsey, 2010). Another symbolic interactionism theory is the self fulfilling prophecy, or labelling theory. The way somebody perceives and interprets an individual can lead to labels being placed on said individual, and very often becoming true for no other reason than the individual believes it to be, 'the 'reality' is actually a construct of a self-perpetuating process of labelling' (O'Byrne, 2011). Hargreaves (1967) found that children labelled 'troublemakers' developed their own delinquent subculture, going against the values of the school. It can be argued then that the huge difference in subject choices between genders at higher education is because as individuals we perform actions that will lead us to be perceived as 'male' or 'female', and therefore choose subjects that have been labelled one or the other.
Word count: 1083